Summary: This posting describes the newsgroups alt.freemasonry,
alt.masonic.demolay, and alt.masonic.members, including where to
find more information. It should be read by anyone who wishes to
post to alt.freemasonry, alt.masonic.demolay, alt.masonic.youth,
or alt.masonic.members
Expires: Wed, 1 Mar 2006 00:00:00 GMT

Archive-name: freemasonry/faq
Posting-Frequency: monthly
Last-modified 2003/01/28
Version 1.5
Copyright: (c) 2004 Edward L. King
Maintainer: Ed King <usenetfaq@masonicinfo.com>


T H E

U S E N E T

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FAQ



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Subject: [0] IMPORTANT NOTE, ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS, INTRODUCTION,
REVISIONS, A NOTE ON WORLD-WIDE MASONRY, AND TABLE OF CONTENTS

Subject: [0-1] Important Note

This update represents a change of Maintainer. Please contact me
if you have any other additions or corrections.

Edward L. King <usenetfaq@masonicinfo.com>

Andrew Fabbro compiled/authored versions of this FAQ up to version
(1.2). Unfortunately, he no longer had the time available to
maintain it. Charles Plater carried the torch through version (1.4).
Both have served as true and worthy craftsmen!


Subject: [0-2] Acknowledgements.

Honor Roll: Peter T. Arnold, Ron Boutwell, Denis Constales, Steven
Cranmer, Earl K. Dille, Bob Dixon, Hans Prag Enator, Ed Greenberg,
Bill Hickey, Roger Ingersoll, Joy Leavy, Paul Leger, Steve Lubetkin,
Trevor W. McKeown, Bill Menees, Henry Miller, Stephen Morris,
Roderick Morrison, Nick Oliver, Tony Olivero, Bruce Perrussel,
Charles Plater, Mark Saunders, Tom Schnorrenberg, Michael Shelby,
Robert H. Starr, Dave Stites, David R. B. Walker, Don Williams,
Catherine Yronwode, Jeffrey Zeth, and a few others whose names
couldn't be discerned from their e-mail addresses.

Special thanks to Roger Ingersoll, whose Masonic FTP archives
provided substantial portions of this FAQ. Where possible, we have
included specific credits to the authors of those files, though
several are anonymous. Note that one of the sources credited here
is FMBITS.TXT, which has the following disclaimer as its preface:
"With apologies, the original source for the following information
has been lost. It probably came from either the Philalethes or the
Southern California Research Lodge. The file has been stored in my
Computer for a couple of years. Enjoy! William N. Wine (Sysop)
#72435,1512 [ Masonry Forum Compuserve 07/11/93]".

Special thanks to Steve Lubetkin, who dug up the list of US Grand
Lodges.

Finally, thanks to the Grand Lodge of Michigan, whose lectures
provided the basis of the "Famous Freemasons" list, and to many
research lodges, whose work over the years has provided much of the
information contained here.

Subject: [0-3] Introduction

Any question you see marked with an asterisk should be considered
incomplete.

It should be stated without fail that no Mason, no Master, no Grand
Master can speak for all of Masonry. The answers provided herein
are not "authoritative" in that they are not universally true
for all Masons everywhere and reflect the beliefs of all Masons.
There are differences between each jurisdiction, and in general
there are differences between US Grand Lodges and Grand Lodges in
other countries. Of course, the high ideals and noble principles of
Masonry remain the same the world over, but some of the fine points
and details may vary.

So remember: nothing here is "gospel". This FAQ is intended to
provide a summation of commonly-given answers to commonly asked
questions on the net.

Andrew Fabbro (Original FAQ caretaker)
Charles A. Plater (Subsequent FAQ caretaker)
Edward L. King (Current FAQ caretaker)
usenetfaq@masonicinfo.com

Subject: [0-4] Revision History

Subject: [0-4-1] Changes in version 1.5.0
* Changed current FAQ caretaker info where appropriate.
* Changed age and other membership requirements for DeMolay,
Rainbow, and Job's Daughters as well as membership
requirements for the National Sojourners.
* Updated the section regarding Compuserve's Masonry Forum

Subject: [0-4-2] Change history through version 1.4 will
soon be available on the web at
http://www.masonicinfo.com/usenetfaqhistory.htm (Who's computer is this?)

Subject: [0-5] A Note on Worldwide Masonry

This FAQ was written by an American and the majority of those who've
contributed material are also Americans. This unfortunately lends a
very American flavor to the material. While the tenets and noble
principles of Masonry are the same everywhere, there is some
difference in organizational structure, ritual work, policies,
procedures, etc. in non-US GLs (and even among US GLs). We are
always more than happy to include material on Masonry outside of the
US and examples of how Masonry differs in non-US jurisdictions. What
we receive is included. This is simply a disclaimer that the
material herein is derived from primarily American sources and when
in doubt, check with the Grand Lodge in your jurisdiction.

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Subject: [1] MASONRY ON USENET AND THE INTERNET

Subject: [1-1] Where is this FAQ available?

This FAQ is available on the Web at
http://www.masonicinfo.com/usenetfaq.htm (Who's computer is this?)

It is posted monthly to alt.freemasonry, alt.masonic.members,
alt.masonic.youth, alt.masonic.demolay, news.announce.newsgroups,
news.groups

If all of the above fail, and only as a last resort, send e-mail to
Ed King <usenetfaq@masonicinfo.com>

Subject: [1-2] Is there a mailing list?

Yes, there are several. In the next update, accumulated information
will be added here.

Subject: [1-3] Are there any FTP sites?

None that the FAQ maintainer is aware of.

Subject: [1-4] Are there any Wide World Web Masonic resources?

Yes. There are quite a few:

http://www.freemasonry.org/ (Who's computer is this?)

Anti-Masonry: Points of View
http://www.masonicinfo.com/ (Who's computer is this?)

A Page about Freemasonry
http://web.mit.edu/dryfoo/Masonry/ (Who's computer is this?)

Canonbury Masonic Research Centre
http://www.canonbury.ac.uk/ (Who's computer is this?)

Centre for Research into Freemasonry
Within the Humanities Research Institute - University of
Sheffield
http://www.shef.ac.uk/~crf/ (Who's computer is this?)

FM Hyperlinks
http://www.internetloge.de/hotlinks/hyplink.htm (Who's computer is this?)

Freemasonry Today
The magazine for everyone interested in Freemasonry.
http://www.freemasonrytoday.co.uk/ (Who's computer is this?)

Go Masonry
http://www.gomasonry.com/ (Who's computer is this?)

MasterMason.Com
http://mastermason.com/ (Who's computer is this?)

Paul Bessel's web site
http://bessel.org/ (Who's computer is this?)

Philalethes E-M@son Links
The Oldest and Largest Collection of Masonic Web Sites
http://links.hiram.net/ (Who's computer is this?)

Pietre-Stones Review of Freemasonry
http://welcome.to/psfreemasonry (Who's computer is this?)

Quatuor Coronati Correspondence Circle
The Premier Lodge of Masonic Research
http://www.qccc.co.uk/ (Who's computer is this?)

(Thanks to Richard White for updating this list.)

Subject: [1-5] Are there any Masonic Chat Rooms?

Yes. There is an IRC channel on the EFnet servers named
#FreeMasons.

Subject: [1-5] What about CompuServe, AOL, Prodigy, GEnie, Delphi,
and other commercial services?

On CompuServe, type GO MASONRY to reach the Masonry forum. The CIS
Masonry forum has an excellent library of files on Masonry, and the
forum contains very good discussion. You do not need to be a
CompuServe member in order to participate. You can use a browser
to http://go.compuserve.com/masonry (Who's computer is this?) Note: no www in the address!)

On America On-Line: There are four Masonic discussion folders in two
different areas. Each area has a Masonic Youth Groups section and a
Freemasonry section. To get to the first area use keyword:
Exchange, then press the Communities Center button, then go to the
Organizations Board. In that folder are the discussion groups
called Freemasonry Online and Masonic Youth Organizations. To get
to the second, use keyword: Religion, then go to Other Religions,
and then select Other Religions again in the new list. Masonic
Youth Groups and Freemasonry should be in there somewhere
(commercial providers have a habit of incorrectly placing Masonry in
the "religion" section-- GEnie used to do this). The first area is
probably the better of the two. You can also search the software
libraries on AOL using the keyword "Mason". Also, searching the
member directory using the keyword "Mason" will give you a list
of many other Masons on AOL. AOL also has a "CyberLodge". E-mail:
Fronefield@aol.com for a copy of the trestleboard. The "CyberLodge"
meets in the "Public Chat Room" by the name of "Freemasonry."
Meetings are held at 9:00PM Eastern on the second Wednesday and
8:00PM Eastern on the fourth Sunday of each month. (Thanks to Bill
Menees for the information on AOL)

Subject: [1-6] What is alt.freemasonry for?

Alt.freemasonry is intended for general discussion of Masonry and
related topics. Almost any question regarding Masonry is welcome
there. Both Masons and non-Masons are welcome.

Subject: [1-7] What is alt.masonic.members for?

Alt.masonic.members is intended to be a home for USENET Masons to
talk about the Craft, though non-Masons are welcome to participate.
The focus in a.m.m., however, is on discussion among people already
familiar with Masonry or people who are Masons, so questions about
becoming a Mason or what the York Rite is would be inappropriate
(feel free to post such questions in alt.freemasonry instead).

Of course, neither newsgroup (or the mailing list) is considered
Tiled and non-Masons read both regularly, so Brothers should not
post anything that they would not normally discuss with non-Masons.

Discussion on Co-Masonry (a form of Masonry which includes both men
and women) is welcome in either a.f or a.m.m.

Subject: [1-8] What is alt.masonic.demolay for?

A.m.d. is for discussion regarding DeMolay (shocker, huh?) See III,
6 if you don't know what DeMolay is.

Subject: [1-9] Hey! Somebody just posted some nonsense about how
Masons worship Satan and sell their soul to the Reverend Moon! What
should I do about it?

Periodically, someone will post obvious flame-bait on one of the
Masonic newsgroups. Masons who read the newsgroup obviously want to
post and rebut these false claims. However, keep in mind that a
single bit of bait that takes 30 seconds to write ("Masons are all
KKK members!") can consume hours of time in rebuttal. Half-a-dozen
flame-bait posts can drown the newsgroup in meaningless flame-wars
that asphyxiates any serious conversation. On the other hand, if the
poster finds that his ramblings are simply being ignored, he will
likely become bored and go off to alt.get-a-life and mingle with his
own kind.

Some readers feel that these claims must be addressed, otherwise
USENET readers will get the wrong impression about Masonry. There
is some truth in this, though to be frank, if someone is willing to
get his information from someone who posts unsubstantiated one-line
attacks with half-a-dozen misspelled words, there is probably little
hope. However, this FAQ has been created to provide an answer to
these nonsense posts, so that Masons can simply say "read the FAQ"
rather than having to recreate its answers every time.

Still, some people will want to reply. In descending order of
desirability, here is a hierarchy of possible responses:

(a) Ignore it. The person involved obviously is trying to stir up a
flame-war, or bait Masons into saying something nasty in return so
he can point and say "See! Masons are name-callers!"

(b) Respond via e-mail. Point the poster to this FAQ, or write your
own response.

(c) Post a follow-up designed to entertain newsgroup readers. For
example, if someone posts claiming that Masons are part of a global
conspiracy, a gag post about channeling Adam Weishaupt of the
Bavarian Illuminati or stating that Masons receive their daily to-do
lists from root@universe.org would show the folly of the poster's
ideas while still contributing something enjoyable to the
newsgroup's readers.

(d) If the poster's flame-bait is something not covered in this FAQ
and you feel that you just can't hold back from responding, please:

(1) remove any cross-posts (in both the posting and the follow-ups).
Some trollers will post a bit of bait in alt.freemasonry and cross-
post it to a half-dozen different groups, thus assuring that they
receive at least some response somewhere, which will be echoed to
all the other groups...can you say snowball?

(2) If it not covered in this FAQ, please send a copy of the
original post and your reply to usenetfaq@masonicinfo.com so it
may be included future editions. No one has yet claimed that
Masonry is really a secret martial art or that Master Masons have
a special power to buy real estate no-money-down, but if someone
does, a Q&A just for them will be added.

Finally, remember that there are people who have genuine questions
or misconceptions about Masonry and are not trying to flame anyone
but rather simply want answers. Just because they have
misconceptions does not mean they are trying to provoke anyone.
You can usually tell the difference by the tone of the post:

Honest Question: "I read in the Weekly World News that Masons have
ties to the KKK and are prejudiced and don't allow blacks to be
members. Is this true?" Flame-Bait: "You Masons are all
Klansmen and bigots, aren't you? How do you live with yourselves?
Do you enjoy harassing ethnic minorities?"

Honest Question: "I've heard that Catholics can't be Masons. Is
this true? Are there any Catholic Masons? What is the issue here?"
Flame-Bait: "How can you Masons lie about Catholics, saying they
can be Masons? Why are you trying to deceive everyone? What is
your hidden agenda?"

Honest Question: "I thought Masonry was a fraternity, but I read
that you have to profess some kind of faith in God, or that people
pray in Lodge. Is Masonry a religion?"
Flame-Bait: "Masonry is a religion, and you have to give up your
religion to be a Mason! Don't believe what Masons tell you!"

Etcetera. Those asking honest questions will usually respond with a
thanks and consider the information given. Those seeking to sow the
seeds of a flame-war will simply switch subjects endlessly and
ignore any responses.

For more anti-masonic rebuttal information, visit
http://freemasonry.bc.ca/anti-masonry/anti-masonry_faq.html (Who's computer is this?) and
http://www.masonicinfo.com (Who's computer is this?)

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Subject: [2] WHO/WHAT ARE MASONS?

Subject: [2-1] What is Freemasonry?

Freemasonry (or simply, Masonry) is a fraternal order whose basic
tenets are brotherly love, relief (philanthropy), and truth. We
strive to enjoy the company of our brother Masons, assist them in
times of personal trouble, and reinforce essential moral values.
There is an old adage that Masonry "takes good men and makes them
better", which is our goal.

It has often been observed that men are the products of everything
they come into contact with during their lifetime. Masonry offers a
man an opportunity to come into regular, enjoyable contact with men
of good character, thus reinforcing his own personal moral
development. Of course, Masonry is also meant to be enjoyed by its
membership, so the order should not be viewed simply as a
philosophical club, but rather a vibrant fellowship of men who seek
to enjoy each other's company, a fraternity.

To maintain this fraternity, discussion of religion and politics
within the Lodge is forbidden as these subjects are those that have
often divided men in the past. Masons cover the spectrum of both
religious and political beliefs. Masonry encourages a man to be
religious without advocating a particular religion, and to be
active in his community without advocating a particular medium of
political expression.

While there are probably some actual stone-workers who are Masons,
Masonry does not teach is membership the literal techniques of
stonework. Rather, it takes the actual "operative" work of Medieval
Masons and uses it as an allegory for moral development. Thus, the
symbols of Masonry are the common tools that were used by medieval
stonemasons: the gavel, the rule, the compasses, the square, the
level, etc. Each of these has a symbolic meaning in Masonry. For
example, Masons are said to meet "on the level", meaning that all
Masons are brothers, regardless of social status, personal wealth,
or office within the Lodge or in the world at large. Similar
symbolism exists for other tools.

Masonry is distinguished from other fraternal orders by its emphasis
on moral character, its ornate rituals, and its long tradition and
history, which dates back to at least the 17th century in modern
form, the 14th century (c. 1350-1390) in the written evidence of its
precursors, and back to the mists of antiquity in its origin.
Since 1598, in Scotland, upon the introduction of the Schaw Statutes
which required lodges there to keep records of proceedings. Since
1723, in England, which is the earliest the [now] UGLE records go
back to. Written records of the Grand Lodge of England formed in
1717 did not commence straight away. (Thanks to Richard White for
these dates.)

There are also a great many things that Masonry is NOT: a religion,
a secret society, etc., and these will be covered later in this FAQ.

There are three degrees in Masonry. Other appendant bodies confer
additional degrees, up to the 32nd (or the honorary 33rd) of the
Scottish Rite, but in symbolic Masonry (or Blue Lodge Masonry)
proper, there are only three. At the Blue Lodge, Masons receive the
degrees of Entered Apprentice (first degree), Fellowcraft (second
degree), and Master Mason (third degree). Advancement generally
requires the mastery of a small body of memorized material, the
contents of which varies from jurisdiction to jurisdiction. In some
jurisdictions, only the signs, tokens, and grips of each degree must
be learned; in others, a longer amount of material.

Of course, no Mason would ever look down upon a Brother simply
because he was of a lower degree-- the degrees do not exist to
create a pecking order or to confer rank. Rather, they are a system
of initiation that allows men to become familiar with the august and
ancient history and principles of Masonry at a comfortable pace.
Proceeding from Entered Apprentice to Master Mason in the US can
take as little as three months, while in England, the degrees are
usually spaced farther apart. Additionally, some US Grand Lodges
have begun holding 'one day' classes whereby all three degrees are
conferred during a single day.

Most Lodges have regular communications (meetings) once a month,
that may also be referred to as "business meetings". In the US, these
are typically only open to Master Masons. In England, these
meetings are opened in the first degree, and EAs may
attend with the exception of grand lodge and provincial/district
grand lodge. Conferring of degrees is usually done at other
meetings during the month. Although degree conferral can take place
at a regular communication (as it does in UGLE lodges.)

While conferral of degrees and mundane business do take up a lot of
a Lodge's time, there are a host of other activities that Masons
engage in within the fraternity. Charitable work is often done, in
the form of fundraisers, community volunteer work, etc. And there
are also a great many things done for the simple pleasure of
company: monthly breakfasts or dinners, picnics, card/chess matches,
lecturers on Masonic history, you name it. Masonry is a fraternity,
and its membership seeks to have fun.

Local Masonic Lodges are organized under Grand Lodges. In the
United States, each state has its own Grand Lodge, which is a peer
with every other Grand Lodge. There is no "Grandest Lodge"-- each
Grand Lodge is supreme in its jurisdiction (e.g., in the US, in its
state) but has no authority elsewhere. Of course, this does not
mean that Masonry in New York is radically different than Masonry in
Scotland or New Mexico. Masons are very traditional and the
differences between Grand Lodges are usually minor.

The head of a Lodge is given the title Worshipful Master. This, of
course, does not imply that Masons worship him; it is merely a
stylish title. Masonic Lodges can be found in many cities, of all
sizes, around the world. There are presently approximately 5
million Masons, about half of whom are in the United States.

Subject: [2-2] What is the Scottish Rite?

The Scottish Rite is an appendant body of Masonry, meaning that it
is not part of the Blue Lodge per se, but closely associated with
Masonry. It requires that a man be a Master Mason before joining the
Scottish Rite. The Scottish Rite confers the 4th through 32nd
degrees. The degree work may be, but is not necessarily, completed
at one time. Any Master Mason is eligible to join the Scottish Rite.
The degrees of the Scottish Rite continue the symbolism of the
first three Masonic degrees. For a discussion of the 33rd degree,
see question 9 of this section.

In England this order is known as "Rose Croix." While it is slightly
different, it still has a 33 degree system.

The above refers to the Ancient Accepted Scottish Rite (AASR), not
the Rectified Scottish Rite , which exists both in UGLE-recognized
and non-recognized Masonic bodies in the Europe.

Subject: [2-3] What is the York Rite?

The York Rite, like the Scottish Rite, is an appendant body of
Masonry, and confers degrees beyond the Blue Lodge's three degrees.
It consists of nine additional degrees: Mark Master, Past Master,
Most Excellent Master, and Royal Arch Mason; the Cryptic Degrees of
the Royal Master, Select Master, and Super Excellent Master; and the
Chivalric Orders of the Order of the Red Cross, Order of the Knights
of Malta and the Order of Knights Templar.

The Temple degrees, which comprise the top degrees of the York Rite
are specifically Christian. Or at least, it can be stated that the
oath is: in some Grand Lodges in the US and abroad, one need not be
a Christian, but rather only be willing to take a Christian OATH.
The difference here is that there are some who would willingly swear
to defend the Christian faith on the grounds that they would defend
any man's faith. The Chapter (or Royal Arch) and Council Of Royal
And Select Masters (Cryptic Rite), which comprise the first two
sections of the York Rite, are not specifically Christian.

As with most things Masonic, discuss any concerns with your local
York Rite, who can advise you regarding your eligibility.

The York Rite does not exist as a unified order in England. Each of
the orders contained in the US York Rite Bodies is separate and
independent in England, and there is no progression from one of the
orders to the next.

Subject: [2-4] What is the Shrine?

The Shrine is not an appendant body of Masonry, though the
distinction would escape many. The Shrine confers no additional
degrees. It was founded in 1872 (the Mecca Temple in New York City)
and an Arabic theme was chosen. Hence, the distinctive red fez that
Shriners wear at official functions.

Members of the Ancient Arabic Order of the Nobles the Mystic Shrine
for North America (AAONMS is an anagram for "A MASON") are required
to be Master Masons in good standing with their lodge. The Shrine
is most noted for its emphasis on philanthropy and its jolly outlook
on life-- it has been called "the playground of Masonry". This is
expressed as "Pleasure without intemperance, hospitality without
rudeness, and jollity without coarseness."

The Royal Order of Jesters is a group drawn from Shrine membership,
by invitation only.

Subject: [2-5] What is the Eastern Star?

The Order of the Eastern Star is an adoptive rite of Freemasonry
with teachings based on the Bible and objectives that are charitable
and benevolent. The founder of OES was Dr. Robert Morris, a lawyer
and educator from Boston, Massachusetts, who was a Master Mason and
Past Grand Master of Kentucky. Dr. Morris intended his creation to
become a female branch of Freemasonry, but he failed to overcome the
great opposition this idea engendered. After his first published
ritual in 1849-50, he became associated with Robert Macoy who wrote
and published a ritual based on Morris' in 1867. The first Grand
Chapter was organized in Michigan in the same year. (There is
evidence for an organization of the same name founded variously in
1788 or 1793, but this group was defunct by 1867.) Subordinate
(local) chapters operate under charter from state level grand
chapters which are responsible to the General Grand Chapter at the
International Eastern Star temple in Washington, D.C.

Members must be eighteen years or older and either Master Masons in
good standing or properly related to a Master Mason in good
standing. The latter category includes wives; widows; sisters;
daughters; mothers; granddaughters; stepmothers; stepdaughters;
stepsisters; and half-sisters. In 1994 this was expanded to
include nieces, daughters-in- law, and grandmothers.

Each chapter has eighteen officers, some elected and others
appointed. Two offices are specifically male (Patron and Associate
Patron) while nine offices are specifically female (including Matron
and Associate Matron). While the Worthy Matron is considered to be
the presiding officer of the chapter, the degrees cannot be
conferred without a presiding brother in good standing (hence the
Patron and Associate Patron).

Each chapter retains the right to decide who shall be a member of
the organization. Election to the degrees must be unanimous,
without debate, and secret. The successful candidate must profess a
belief in a Supreme Being and is initiated in five degrees, which
are conferred in one ceremony. (When Eastern Star was created, it
was intended to be the first of a three degree series. The second
and third degrees were Queen of the South and the Order of the
Amaranth, respectively.)

Interestingly enough, OES requires only the belief in a Supreme
Being even though the degrees are based in both the Old and New
Testaments. While non-Christians are not specifically barred from
membership, it would seem to be difficult to be other than Christian
and belong to the Order. (Thanks to Joy Leavy for this section)

Subject: [2-6] What is DeMolay?

The International Order of DeMolay is the world's largest fraternal
organization for young men between the ages of 12 and 21. The Order
was founded in Kansas City, Missouri on March 24, 1919 by Frank
Sherman Land. DeMolay Chapters are sponsored by Masonic Lodges, and
some members of the sponsoring body also serve as Advisors on the
Chapter's Advisory Council. Structurally, it is similar to Masonry.
The officers of a Chapter are the Master Councilor, Senior
Councilor, Junior Councilor, Senior Deacon, Junior Deacon, Senior
Steward, Junior Steward, Orator, Scribe, Marshal, Chaplain, Standard
Bearer, Sentinel, Almoner, and seven Preceptors.

DeMolay Chapters hold monthly or bi-weekly meetings with
Masonic-like Ritual. Other activities include athletic tournaments
and events, social functions (joint activities with Rainbow are
encouraged), fund-raising activities, Masonic service activities,
and civic and philanthropic activities.

DeMolays are taught the seven cardinal virtues of the Order-- filial
love, reverence for sacred things, courtesy, comradeship, fidelity,
cleanness, and patriotism-- and the importance of practicing them in
their daily lives.

The Order's namesake is Jacques DeMolay, who was the last Grand
Master of the Knights Templar and who was executed by Philip IV's
soldiers on March 18, 1314. Louis Lower, the first DeMolay, and his
group of friends, when asked by Dad Land to choose a name for their
group, believed that his heroic fidelity and loyalty to his fellow
Templars were qualities with which they wanted their group to be
identified. Mind you, Dad Land explained this to them before they
chose their name.

A fascinating book about the history of the Order and the life of
Frank S. Land (1890-1959), titled "Hi! Dad," is available from the
DeMolay and More Store or practically any member of the Order. The
phone number of the DeMolay and More Store is 1-800-DEMOLAY. (thanks
to Tom Schnorrenberg)

Subject: [2-7] What is International Order of Rainbow for Girls?

Rainbow is the complement to DeMolay, enrolling girls between the
age of 11 and 20. No Masonic relationship is necessary in order to
join. It confers two degrees, the Initiatory and the Grand Cross
of Color. Rainbow emphasizes effective leadership, Church Membership
and active Participation in the church of the member's choice,
patriotism, cooperation with equals, love of home, loyalty to family,
and service to humanity. The International Order of the Rainbow for
Girls helps promote self-esteem and leadership in its members. See
http://www.iorg.org (Who's computer is this?) for additional information.

Subject: [2-8] What are some other Masonic organizations?

Acacia: A college fraternity for Master Masons, the sons of Masons,
and young men recommended by two Masons one of whom is an Acacian
himself. The national governing board is composed exclusively of
32nd and 33rd degree Masons.

Order of Amaranth: Open to Masons and their wives, mothers,
daughters, widows, and sisters. At least one Master Mason must be
present at every initiation. It confers only one degree.

Daughters of Mokanna: An auxiliary organization of the Grotto
comprised of the wives, mothers, daughters, widows, and sisters of
the Master Masons in the Grotto.

Daughters of the Nile: An auxiliary organization for the wives,
mothers, daughters, widows, and sisters of members of the Shrine.

Desoms: An organization for deaf Masons.

Grotto: A fun organization open to Master Masons. It imitates the
Shrine to a large degree, but requires only that a member be a
Master Mason rather than a 32nd degree Mason or Knight Templar.
Officially known as The Mystic Order of Veiled Prophets of the
Enchanted Realm (MOVPER).

High Twelve International: An organization of Master Masons that
usually meet for lunch, enjoy fellowship, and support Masonic
causes, with special emphasis on youth and patriotic endeavors.

Job's Daughters: Enrolls girls between the ages of 11 and 20 that
have some Masonic relative. They must profess a belief in God but
do not require their members to follow any specific religion. They
actively support their charity program which provides assistive
hearing devices for children.

Triangles: An organization for young ladies between 10 and 21 in
New York State where friends are made and members better themselves.

L.O.S. of N.A.: The Ladies' Oriental Shrine of North America.
Another auxiliary for the wives, mothers, daughters, widows, and
sisters of Shrine members.

National Sojourners, Inc.: This organization, founded to meet the
needs of the military Mason in times of war and peace requires its
members to be citizens of the US who are Master Masons in good
standing in a duly constituted Lodge of Master Masons recognized
by and maintaining fraternal relations with a majority of the
Regular Grand Lodges in the United States and who are serving or
who have served honorably as a Commissioned, Warrant, or Senior
Non-Commissioned Officer of the uniformed services of the United
States or who have served in time of war as a Commissioned or
Warrant Officer or the equivalent in an armed service of a nation
allied with the United States or are regularly elected to Honorary
Membership.

Philalethes Society: The oldest and largest Masonic research
organization, for Masons interested in Masonic philosophy and
history.

Royal Order of Scotland: An organization for Christian Masons who
have been 32nd degree Masons or Knights Templar for five or more
years.

Tall Cedars of Lebanon: A fun organization for Master Masons
similar to the Grotto. It confers the two degrees of the Royal
Court and the Sidonian.

White Shrine of Jerusalem: For Master Masons and their wives,
mothers, daughters, widows, and sisters. Members must profess a
belief in the defense of the Christian religion.

(thanks to Bill Menees for providing this section and Ed King
for updating it.)

Subject: [2-9] What is Co-Masonry?

Co-Masonry refers to Masonic Lodges that admit both men and women.
Co-Masonry traces its heritage back to the 19th century.

There are two Grand Lodges of Co-Masonry with jurisdiction in
America: Le Droit Humain, a GL based in Paris, France and the
original Co-Masonic organization in the US, and the American
Federation of Human Rights (a/k/a American Co-Masonry), which
is based in Larkspur, Colorado.

The degree structure differs slightly from standard Blue Lodge
structure (i.e., the Scottish Rite is worked as part of the regular
Lodge, not a separate organization), but in most things Co-Masonic
lodges function as regular Masonic lodges.

There are a few feminine grand lodges, which are considered by the
UGLE to be regular, with the exception of the initiation of women.

Subject: [2-10] What is Prince Hall Masonry?

NOTE: This section is excerpted from the Grand Lodge of New
Brunswick's annual communication. It would be nice if some
Prince Hall Masons who could provide better information.

"There are some schools of thought that Prince Hall (his name not a
title) was born in Barbados to a free black woman and a Scottish
father. He emigrated to the Colony of Boston, Mass. and acquired
real estate, making him eligible to vote. It was also documented
that he was a devout Christian and a leather-worker by trade. On
March 6, 1775, during the American War of Independence, Prince Hall
along with fourteen men of color were made Masons in Army Lodge #441
of the Irish Constitution. When Army Lodge moved on, the aforesaid
brethren were issued a permit authorizing them to appear publicly as
a Masonic body for the purpose of celebrating the feast of St. John
and to bury their dead.

On March 2, 1784, these same brethren applied to the Grand Lodge of
England for a charter, which was subsequently issued to them on
September 29, 1784. They were warranted under the name of African
Lodge, No. 459 on the register of the Grand Lodge of England by
authority of then Grand Master, the Duke of Cumberland. Prince Hall
was the first Master. That charter, which is authenticated and in
safekeeping, is believed to be the only original charter issued from
the Grand Lodge of England still in the possession of any Lodge in
the United States.

African Lodge allowed itself to slip into arrears in the late 1790's
and was stricken from the rolls after the Union of 1813, although it
had attempted correspondence in 1802 and 1806. In 1827, after other
unreplied-to attempts at communication, it declared its independence
of any external authority and began to call itself African Grand
Lodge No. 1.

It is interesting to note that when the Massachusetts lodges which
were acting as a Provincial Grand Lodge declared themselves an
independent Grand Lodge, and even when the present Grand Lodge of
Massachusetts was formed by the amalgamation of two separate Grand
Lodges, African Lodge was not invited to take part, even though it
held a warrant every bit as valid as those others. This may be
explained in part by this 1795 quote from John Eliot, who later
became Grand Chaplain of the Gr. Lodge of Mass. He wrote, "White
Masons, who are not more skilled in geometry than their black
brethren, will not acknowledge them... .the truth is they are
ashamed of being on an equality with blacks."

Today there are 45 Grand Lodges (the latest being the just formed
"Most Worshipful Prince Hall Grand Lodge of the Caribbean") that
trace their origin back to African Lodge #459. There are more than
5000 Prince Hall Lodges and over 300,000 members. So far as it is
known, their ritual, their secrets, their procedures, their
requirements, their beliefs, their tenets or fundamental principles,
are all either identical with ours, or recognizably similar." (by..
W Bro. Roy Cassidy)

To add to this:

The United Grand Lodge of England has now officially recognized
a number of Prince Hall Lodges. Many US Grand Lodges have
recognized PH GLs within their jurisdictions, and it has been or is
being discussed in other jurisdictions. Since every Grand Lodge is
autonomous and the supreme authority in its jurisdiction, this issue
must be approached on a state-by-state basis.

Some have criticized Masonry as "segregated" due to the Prince Hall
Lodges, but this is a ridiculous claim, since there are many black
Masons in non-PH Lodges and white members in PH Lodges, and displays
a fundamental ignorance of Masonic history.

Subject: [2-11] What is a 33rd degree Mason?

The Scottish Rite awards a special honorary degree, the 33rd, to
those it feels has made an outstanding contribution to Masonry, the
community as a whole, and to mankind. There is no way to "achieve"
this degree or "take" it, in the sense that one takes the 4th
through 32nd degrees in the Scottish Rite. It is a singular honor,
rarely bestowed, and greatly admired.

Subject: [2-12] Are there any Masonic functions that I can attend as
a non-Mason?

Yes. Many Lodges open their installation of officers to the public.
Once a year, a new Worshipful Master takes office. The ceremony
performed during his inauguration is public. It is not the same
ceremony as would be performed in a regular Masonic ritual or
degree, but it does have the flavoring of Masonic symbolism and
allows the public to "get a feel for Masonry" without being Masons.
NOTE: Not all jurisdictions have public installations. Call or
write your local lodge for details.

In addition, many Lodges sponsor public functions throughout the
year, such as dinners or charity functions, designed to allow
non-Masons who are interested in Masonry the chance to talk with
Masons and ask questions. For information, call your local Lodge.

Subject: [2-13] Who is the head of the Masons?

No one. Each Grand Lodge has its own jurisdiction and is the
supreme authority within that jurisdiction. Obviously, many Grand
Lodges have regular communication with each other, but official
policy in one has no effect in another.

Subject: [2-14] Are there dues, fees, etc. associated with being a Mason?

Yes. Like all organizations, Lodges must be able to pay their light
bills. Typically, there is a one-time fee for the three degrees of
Masonry, as well as regular annual dues. But these vary widely
depending on the number of members, cost of living (rent in
Manhattan is higher than it is in rural Oklahoma), the actual
physical facilities of the Lodge, etc. The fees and dues, however,
are not prohibitively expensive (the author is a college student and
has no problem with them). Rather than give a single figure which
may be very different than your local Lodge charges, or publishing
an extended table of costs, it is easiest to simply refer the
interested to their local Lodge.

Incidentally, many Grand Lodge jurisdictions provide for "life
membership" after a Mason has paid dues for a long period. For
example, in Michigan a Mason is no longer asked to pay dues after he
has been a Mason for forty years. Other jurisdictions allow members
to pay a lump sum for life membership. As with almost everything in
Masonry, check with your local Grand Lodge or Lodge for more
information.

Subject: [2-15] I hear Masons refer to an "apron". What is that?

"During the ceremonies of his initiation, each Mason is presented
with a white apron. It is, to him, an emblem of innocence and the
badge of a Mason. It has, in all ages, been cherished by the rich,
the poor, the high and the low. It is his for life. He will never
receive another one and has, therefore, been cautioned to take it
home and instructed in its care. While perfectly satisfactory for
him to do so if he desires, he need not bring it to Lodge, as linen
aprons are provided for his use meetings." (From a pamphlet, "To the
Lady and Family of a Mason")

The above applies to the US. In many other countries, the Master
Mason owns his regalia and brings it to the Lodge.

Subject: [2-16] What is a "Masonic Funeral"?

"Any member who was in good standing at the time of his death is
entitled to a Masonic funeral if he or his family requests it. Such
a request should be made to the Master of his Lodge who will make
the necessary arrangements with the family, the mortuary, and the
minister. A service is authorized by the jurisdiction in which you
are located, and consists of participation at the mortuary, the
beginning at the mortuary and the closing at the graveside, or
graveside only. Pallbearers will be furnished at the request of the
family. In general, the Lodge will do as much or as little as the
nearest relative wishes it to do." (From a pamphlet, "To the Lady
and Family of a Mason")

-----------------------------------------------------------------------

Subject: [3] PUBLIC PERCEPTIONS & MYTHS

Subject: [3-1] Are Masons just a bunch of old men? Isn't Masonry dying
out?

As regards the United States:

There is no doubt that the population of Masons is aging. There was
a huge increase in membership in almost all fraternal orders after
World War II, including Masonry. This peaked at sometime in the
late 50s. During the social turbulence and generational strains of
the 60s and 70s, new membership fell off, with the result that by
the 1980s, total membership was in sharp decline.

However, there are signs that membership has leveled out, or is
gaining in some areas. In many lodges, there are a great number of
50-and-up members, and a number of 30-and-under members, with a gulf
in between, representing where Baby Boomers would have been. Of
course, we are speaking in broad generalities here-- there is no way
to know the demographics of your local Lodge without asking one of
its members.

The overall point is that Masonic membership, when talking on a
national scale, has probably hit a stable membership base, after a
huge surge and then fall in membership.

Statistics compiled from many jurisdictions in the English-speaking
world by W Bro. John Belton <magellan@dial.pipex.com> for Internet
Lodge No. 9659, England, demonstrate that almost universally there
were two anomalous initiation spikes preceding the two world wars
with an overall membership peak in the late 1950s to mid-1960s. The
post-war membership boom is a myth.

(Please submit information on other parts of the world)

Subject: [3-2] Aren't Masons racist/elitist?

Regarding racism: Masonry explicitly states the equality of men,
regardless of race, creed, or color. But there are some Masons who
are prejudiced, and this is unfortunate, saddening, and unMasonic.
However, it is not representative of Masonry as a whole, or
representative of anything except a tiny minority of Masons. There
are Masons of all ethnic backgrounds.

"Elitism" is harder to define. If you mean that Masons are highly
selective in their membership, then yes, Masons are elitists. But
just criteria is used: men of good character, of good report, who
believe in God. Does the majority of the population fit that
criteria? If you think not, then you could say that Masons are
elitists.

The idea that Masonry is only open to the patrician class, the
landed gentry, and the wealthy is incorrect. There are Masons of
all economic backgrounds. Indeed, there are Lodges which are mostly
or wholly made up of blue-collar workers due to local demographics.

Subject: [3-3] Isn't Masonry just a place where businessmen make deals?

No. In fact, most Masons believe that to trade with a Brother Mason
only because he is a Mason is unMasonic. Even more importantly,
anyone who attempts to join a Lodge solely for business reasons will
not be given a petition.

Masons, however, are friends, and it is not surprising that many
Masons do trade with Brothers. For one thing, they are dealing with
people that are of good character and can be trusted, which is no
small statement in the modern marketplace.

But Masonry is not a "place to network". Yes, some men do view one
of the benefits of membership as an additional source of customers
or partners, but few would say that is the only reason they became
Masons. The work involved in the degrees alone would make this a
poor investment-- better to join the Rotary Club or other business
group.

Subject: [3-4] I see titles like "Worshipful Master" and "Senior
Deacon"-- is this some kind of cult?

No. The titles are simply colorful, stylish, and full of ancient
symbolism. No Mason worships the Master of the Lodge, nor does a
Senior (or Junior) Deacon engage in religious actions, as a Deacon
of a church might.

Subject: [3-5] Masonry is a secret society, right?

Wrong. Secret societies are generally defined as organizations
which are unknown to the public and whose existence is denied. The
Bavarian Illuminati and the Mafia would be examples of secret
societies. "The emphasis in Freemasonry is not on secrecy but on
discretion and privacy." (Trevor McKeown)

Masonry, on the other hand, is well-known and proudly displays its
existence. Masonic Temples are clearly marked as such, and many
Lodges are listed in the yellow pages (usually under "Fraternal
Orders"). Members often wear rings or tie clips that identify
themselves as Masons, and Masons often participate in community
charity work. Finally, some Masonic functions are open to the
public.

Masonry is not a secret society, but rather a society with a few
secrets. These are mainly modes of recognition-- the signals, grips,
signs, and phrases by which Masons recognize each other. The actual
degree rituals are considered secret as well, not because there is
anything that would harm Masonry by their revelation, but rather
because they are more meaningful if the candidate does not know what
is going to go on during them beforehand (see question 9 of this
section if that makes you nervous).

It should be pointed out that many other organizations have a
similar class of secrets. College fraternities (a.k.a. "Greek
letter organizations") often have small secrets known only to their
members, allowing them to travel from house to house and still be
known.

Subject: [3-6] Masonry is a religion, right?

Wrong.

Masonry is not a religion "by the definitions most people use.
Religion, as the term is commonly used, implies several things: a
plan for salvation or path by which one reaches the after-life; a
theology which attempts to describe the nature of God; and the
description of ways or practices by which a man or woman may seek to
communicate with God. Masonry does none of those things. We offer
no plan of salvation. With the exception of saying that He is a
loving Father who desires only good for His children, we make no
effort to describe the nature of God. And while we open and close
our meetings with prayer, and we teach that no man should ever begin
any important undertaking without first seeking the guidance of God,
we never tell a man how he should pray or for what he should pray.
Instead, we tell him that he must find the answers to these great
questions in his own faith, in his church or synagogue or other
house of worship. We urge men not to neglect their spiritual
development and to be faithful in the practice of their religion.
As the Grand Lodge of England wrote in 'Freemasonry and Religion',
'Freemasonry is far from indifferent to religion. Without
interfering in religious practice, it expects each member to follow
his own faith, and to place above all other duties his duty to God
by whatever name He is known.' Masonry itself makes only a simple
religious demand on a man--he must believe that he has an immortal
soul and he must believe in God. No atheist can be a Mason." (Dr.
Jim Tresner, 33rd degree)

"Freemasonry has no dogma or theology. It teaches that it is
important for every man to have a religion of his choice and to be
faithful to it. A good Mason is made even more faithful to the
tenets of his faith by membership." (Rev. Norman Vincent Peale, who
was also a Mason)

Subject: [3-7] Are Masons really controlling the world/meeting with the
Bavarian Illuminati/members of the Trilateral Commission/etc?

<SARCASM> Yes, not to mention the International Jewish Conspiracy,
the Elders of Zion, Inver Brass, S.P.E.C.T.R.E., and the minions of
Cthulhu. </SARCASM>

<ahem> Anyone who believes that Masons are the Master Puppeteers of
the globe either is pulling your leg, has read too much Robert Anton
Wilson, or is in need of serious psychotherapy.

For more information, please see
http://www.masonicinfo.com (Who's computer is this?) and/or
http://freemasonry.bcy.ca/anti-masonry/anti-masonry_faq.html (Who's computer is this?)

Subject: [3-8] Masons are anti-Catholic, right?

Wrong. There is nothing anti-Catholic in Masonry, in its
traditions, its rituals, or its beliefs.

Subject: [3-9] Masonic rituals are demeaning or embarrassing to the
candidate, right?

Nothing could be further from the truth. The rituals (degrees) are
designed to reinforce virtues that the Craft finds desirable, such
as Justice, Brotherly Love, Truth, and the like. The rituals are
actually quite beautiful and filled with ancient language and much
symbolism.

At no point, however, is the candidate asked to do anything that
would embarrass or demean him, nor anything that would violate his
obligations to his faith, country, or the law.

Subject: [3-10] I heard/read a Mason talking about a "Masonic Bible". Do
Masons have their own Bible?

"No. The Bibles sometimes called 'Masonic Bibles' are just Bibles
to which a concordance, giving the Biblical citations on which the
Masonic Ritual is based, has been added. Sometimes reference
material on Masonic history is included. Anyone is welcome to read
one." (Dr. Jim Tresner, 33rd degree) Masonic Bibles are usually the
King James version.

Subject: [3-11] I see that Masonic buildings are called Temples. Does
that mean that Masons worship there?

No. "Webster's New Twentieth Century Dictionary provides a
definition for the word 'temple' which is as good an explanation as
any: 'a building, usually of imposing size, serving the public or an
organization in some special way; as, a temple of art, a Masonic
temple'". (Dr. Jim Tresner. 33rd degree)

-----------------------------------------------------------------------

Subject: [4] HOW DO I BECOME A MASON?

Subject: [4-1] What are the requirements for becoming a Mason?

Candidates must be male, at least 21 years of age, able to profess a
belief in God, and of good character.

For information on mixed-sex Masonry, see the discussion on
Co-Masonry in II, 7.

Some Grand Lodges also have a residency requirement; for example,
the Grand Lodge of Michigan requires candidates to have lived in its
jurisdiction (Michigan) for a minimum of one year.

There are some exceptions to the age requirement. For example, in
England and Virginia, the direct relatives of Master Masons in good
standing are eligible to join at the age of 18. In some
jurisdictions, DeMolays may join upon reaching their 18th birthday.
For a listing of age requirements, please visit
http://www.bessel.org/age.htm (Who's computer is this?)

Subject: [4-2] Can <fill in an ethnic group>s be Masons?

Any human who meets the requirements listed in question (1) of this
section is eligible, regardless of race or color.

Some have speculated that while there is no official prohibition
against, say, blacks or Asians from becoming Masons, there is a de
facto prohibition because they would never be voted into a lodge.
This is false. There are Masons of all ethnic backgrounds.

However, it is fair to state that Masons, as humans, are prone to
the kinds of prejudices that all humans may succumb to. Since the
vote to admit a candidate is anonymous and must be unanimous, one
man's unspoken prejudice is sufficient to deny entry to a man
(except, of course, in those jurisdictions which require more than
one 'no' vote to deny entrance, but you get the idea). Prejudice is
inexcusable and irreconcilable with Masonry, but then, it is also
irreconcilable with Christianity, Judaism, and Islam, and there are
certainly Christians, Jews, and Muslims who harbor prejudices.

So it is possible that a Mason, acting unmasonically, could act to
keep a member out without due cause. But this is not common, nor is
it representative of Masonry in general, nor does it conform to the
high ideals of Masonry.

Subject: [4-3] Can homosexuals be Masons?

Yes, and there are homosexual Masons. Everything said in question
(2) of this section holds true in this case as well. There is the
consideration that some men may view homosexuality as being immoral,
i.e., that homosexuals are not men of "good character". This is
generally not due to any specific prejudice but rather due to
religious belief (depending on how one interprets St. Paul, for
example). However, judging by conversation on alt.freemasonry, it is
safe to say that Masons generally would not regard homosexuality as
a barrier to membership.

Subject: [4-4] I have a physical disability. Can I be a Mason?

The answer is almost certainly yes, provided you can attend Lodge
(and meet the non-physical criteria in question (1) of this
section). Paraplegics have been made Masons, as have the blind, the
deaf, and others with a variety of physical handicaps. Minor
modifications may need to be done to the rituals (e.g., employing
sign language, modifying points where the candidate stands if the
candidate is in a wheelchair, etc.) but most Lodges are willing to
accommodate candidates.

In medieval times, the requirement to have a sound body free of
physical defect was a serious one, since the work of stonemasonry
was physically difficult. Some Grand Lodges did carry this
requirement into symbolic (i.e., non-operative) Masonry. However,
in recent times this has all but been eliminated. Talk to your
local Lodge if you have any questions.

Subject: [4-5] Can <fill in the name of the religion> be a Mason?

The only religious requirement is that candidates believe in the
Supreme Being. If you can in you can in good faith profess a belief
in the Supreme Being, you are eligible to be a Mason. No atheists
will ever knowingly be made a Mason.

There are Christian (Catholic, Protestant, Mormon), Jewish, and
Muslim Masons. It would be tedious and pointless to go into a
religion-by-religion (and then denomination-by-denomination)
discussion. The key points to remember are the requirement of
belief in the Supreme Being and the fact that Masonry is a
fraternity, not a religion.

Subject: [4-6] Do Masons accept Catholics?

Catholicism is only mentioned specifically because it has generated
a lot of traffic in the past on the Masonic newsgroups. There is no
prohibition in any Grand Lodge jurisdiction against Catholics being
made Masons.

Please bear in mind that discussion of this subject on the Masonic
newsgroups invariably generates a very high noise-to-signal ratio.

Subject: [4-7] Can Wiccans be Masons?

This religion is specifically mentioned only because it has been
often debated on alt.freemasonry. It is possible to get into very
involved discussions on the nature of Wiccan beliefs and their
compatibility with Masonry, but the only possible arbitrator is your
Grand Lodge. To that end, it is suggested that if you have more
specific questions, contact your local Lodge.

Again, the same could be said about a number of religions, and Wicca
is only mentioned specifically because it has been brought up
repeatedly on the Masonic newsgroups. Please bear in mind that
discussion of this subject on the USENET Masonic newsgroups
invariably generates more heat than light.

Subject: [4-8] What if my religion does not allow the swearing of oaths?

Some Grand Lodges allow affirmations to be used instead of the
traditional Masonic oath. This is more common in Europe than in the
United States. In all cases, it is best to check with the Grand
Lodge in your jurisdiction (or your local Lodge) for more specific
information.

Subject: [4-9] Do I have to be invited?

Don't wait to be invited-- you will die waiting. Masons are
prohibited from actively recruiting or asking non-Masons to join the
fraternity, to insure that candidates come of their own free will.

As with many things Masonic, there are some exceptions to this rule.
Some Grand Lodges allow solicitation, provided it is low-key and
with the strict provision that no pressure be applied. Still, you
don't *need* to be invited in any jurisdiction, and if you're
interested, act.

Subject: [4-10] OK, I'm interested-- how do I proceed?

If you know a Mason, ask him about membership. He will be glad to
tell you all about the Craft and the local lodge, and give you a
petition if you wish to join.

If you do not know a Mason, drop a letter to the local lodge, and
one of the officers will call you (or call the lodge, though you may
not get an answer unless someone is actually there).

Typically, the process is as follows:

(a) the applicant fills out a petition. The petition asks for two
sponsors, though if you meet and talk with the officers, they can
usually find sponsors or act as sponsors themselves if you do not
know anyone in the lodge.

(b) the petition is read at the lodge during the next business
meeting, which for many lodges is during the first week of the
month. A committee is formed to investigate the candidate. The
petition also asks for two character references.

(c) the committee meets with the candidate to answer questions,
ascertain that he meets the criteria for membership, and find out a
little about him. This is not a "grilling session", but rather a
friendly and casual chat to make certain that the candidate has been
properly informed about Masonry and that was not improperly
solicited. The committee also contacts the character references
listed on the petition (typically asking if they know any reason why
the candidate should not be accepted, etc.)

(d) The committee reports back to the lodge during the next business
meeting and the candidate is voted on. If accepted, someone from
the lodge (often the Secretary) contacts the candidate and informs
him that he has been accepted and schedules a date for the Entered
Apprentice degree.

NOTE: This is based on the summation of several experiences in the
U.S. Your mileage may vary.

-----------------------------------------------------------------------

Subject: [5] HISTORY

Subject: [5-1] Where did Masons come from?

A fascinating question! And, alas, impossible to answer within the
confines of this FAQ. There are a number of theories, a lot of
debate, and a lot of musty history books. Some of the books listed
in question 15 of this section should be of help. As a *very* brief
overview, here is part of an essay by Henry C. Clausen, a noted
Masonic author. This is, of course, just one point of view-- many
other theories exist, but Claussen nicely covers the basics:

"Our Masonic antiquity is demonstrated by a so-called Regius
Manuscript written around the year 1390, when King Richard II
reigned in England, a century before Columbus. It was part of the
King's Library that George II presented to the British Museum in
1757. Rediscovered by James O. Halliwell, a non-Mason, and rebound
in its present form in 1838, it consists of 794 lines of rhymed
English verse and claims there was an introduction of Masonry into
England during the reign of Athelstan, who ascended the throne in
A.D. 925. It sets forth regulations for the Society, fifteen
articles and fifteen points and rules of behavior at church,
teaching duties to God and Church and Country, and inculcating
brotherhood. While the real roots of Masonry are lost in faraway
mists, these items show that our recorded history goes back well
over 600 years. Further proof is furnished through English statutes
as, for example, one of 1350 (25 Edward III, Cap. III) which
regulated wages of a "Master...Mason at 4 pence per day." The
Fabric Role of the 12th century Exeter Cathedral referred to
"Freemasons."

The historical advance of science also treats of our operative
ancient brethren who were architects and stonemasons of geometry.
It is apparent from this portrayal that they had a very real and
personal identification with the Deity and that this fervent
devotion provided energy to build cathedrals. They embraced the
teachings of Plato and understood and applied Pythagorean
relationships. Just as there is a beauty of harmony credited to
mathematical relationships on which music is based, in precisely the
same way these master geometricians treated architecture. The
architects and stonemasons became the personification of geometry,
performing extraordinary feats with squares and compasses.
Geometrical proportion, not measurement, was the rule. Their marks
as stonemasons were derived from geometric constructions. The
mighty works they wrought, cathedrals with Gothic spires pointing
toward the heavens, and especially their "association," were not
without danger and opposition, bearing in mind the Inquisition
established in 1229, the Saint Bartholomew's Eve Massacre of 1572,
and the revocation of the Edict of Nantes in 1685. These historical
points remind us of the need for our cautions against cowans and
eavesdroppers.

Our operative Brethren of the Middle Ages thus were the builders
of mighty cathedrals throughout the British Isles and continental
Europe, many of which still stand. These skilled craftsmen wrote in
enduring stone impressive stories of achievement, frequently
chiseled with symbolic markings. With these architectural
structures of these master builders there was a companion moral
code. These grew up together. Out of this background modern
Freemasonry was born.

Although "Lodges" had existed for centuries, four of the "old"
Lodges met in London on St. John the Baptist's Day, June 24, 1717,
and formed the first Grand Lodge of England, thereafter known as the
Premier Grand Lodge of the world. No longer operative as of old,
the Masons carried on the traditions and used the tools of the craft
as emblems to symbolize principles of conduct in a continued effort
to build a better world.

The American colonial Masonic organizations stemmed from this Grand
Lodge of England and were formed soon after 1717. Its then Grand
Master appointed Colonel Daniel Coxe as Provincial Grand Master of
New York, New Jersey and Pennsylvania on June 5, 1730, and Henry
Price of Boston as Provincial Grand Master of New England in April
1733." -- Henry C. Clausen

Subject: [5-2] What US Presidents have been Masons?

George Washington, James Monroe, Andrew Jackson, James Polk,
James Buchanan, Andrew Johnson, James Garfield, William
McKinley, Theodore Roosevelt, William Howard Taft, Warren G.
Harding, Franklin D. Roosevelt, Harry S Truman, (Lyndon B.
Johnson), Gerald R. Ford

Notes (in chronological order):

William McKinley was raised 4/3/1865, in Hiram Lodge No. 21,
Virginia. This information comes from the MSA's Short Talk
Bulletin series.

William Howard Taft was made a Mason At Sight by the Grand Master
of Ohio and later raised to Grand Master of Ohio in 1909.

Harry S Truman was also Grand Master of his home state, Missouri.

Lyndon Johnson was an Entered Apprentice, but never progressed
beyond that degree.

Ronald Reagan is not a craft Mason. He was made an honorary 33rd
degree Mason by the Southern Jurisdiction of the AASR and an
honorary member of the Imperial Council of the Shrine, but he was
never entered, passed, and raised as a Mason, nor was he ever made a
Mason at sight. (Source: Robinson's Born in Blood)

Bill Clinton is not a Mason, though he was involved in DeMolay for a
time.

Many other leaders in government have been Masons: "They have
included fourteen Presidents and eighteen Vice Presidents of the
United States; a majority of the Justices of the United States
Supreme Court, of the Governors of States, of the members of the
Senate, and a large percentage of the Congressmen. Five Chief
Justices of the United States were Masons and two were Grand
Masters. The five were Oliver Ellsworth, John Marshall (also Grand
Master of Masons in Virginia), William Howard Taft, Frederick M.
Vinson and Earl Warren (also Grand Master of Masons in California.)"
-- Henry C. Clausen

Subject: [5-3] Was Thomas Jefferson a Mason? Patrick Henry? Abraham
Lincoln?

No, no, and no. As for the first two, "an exhaustive search of
Masonic records in Virginia, and elsewhere, offers no iota of
evidence to make them Freemasons. Jefferson participated in the
cornerstone laying of his University at Charlottesville, which was
done Masonically. He praised Freemasonry and his own words proved he
had never been a member of the Craft." (FMBITS.TXT)

There is some evidence that Abraham Lincoln intended to become a
Mason when he returned to Springfield after his second term in
office, had he not been assassinated in 1865.

Subject: [5-4] What famous people have been Masons?

This is by no means a complete list. This list also includes Prince
Hall Masons.

FROM THE AMERICAN REVOLUTION (other than Presidents): Benjamin
Franklin, John Hancock, Paul Revere, John Paul Jones, Lafayette,
Rufus King, James Otis, Baron von Steuben, Joseph Warren, Benedict
Arnold (well, you can't win them all)

POLITICAL LEADERS: Winston Churchill, Simon Bolivar, Edmund Burke,
Benito Juarez, Edward VII, George VI, Bernardo O'Higgins, Jose' de
San Martin, Francisco de Paula Santander, Jose' Rizal, Jose' Marti,
Pandit Nehru, Lajos Kossuth, Jonas Furrer, Guiseppe Mazzini, Eduard
Benes, John A. MacDonald, Aaron Burr, George McGovern, Barry
Goldwater, Estes Kefauver, Adlai Stevenson (not the governor of
Illinois, but his father who was Vice President in 1892), Thomas E.
Dewey, Alf Landon, Hubert H. Humphrey, Wendell Wilke, W.E.B. DuBois,
William Jennings Bryant. Friedrich der Grosse

MILITARY LEADERS: Omar Bradley, John J. Pershing, Douglas McArthur,
General Winfield Scott, Captain Eddie Rickenbacker, Jimmy Doolittle,
General Mark Clark, General George C. Marshall

REPUBLIC OF TEXAS: Sam Houston, Stephen Austin, Davy Crockett, Jim
Bowie, William B. Travis (and, it should be added, General Santa
Ana)

FINE ARTS: Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart (and his father, Leopold), Jean
Sibelius, Franz Liszt, Josef Haydn, Irving Berlin, Gutzon Borglum,
Charles W. Peale, Alfons M. Mucha, John Philip Sousa, both Gilbert &
Sullivan, George Gershwin, George M. Cohen, Count Basie, Nat King
Cole, Giacomo Meyerbeer, Signmund Romberg, Friedrich der Grosse

** Note: Ludwig van Beethoven was not a Mason. He wrote music for a
lot of Masonic poetry (by Goethe and Schiller, in particular), but
he was not himself a member. (Thanks to Roger M. Firestone 32 KCCH)

ACTORS: John Wayne, Red Skelton, Clark Gable, W.C. Fields, Will
Rogers, Burl Ives, Roy Rogers, Danny Thomas, Ernest Borgnine, Oliver
Hardy, Tom Mix, Audie Murphy, Gene Autry, Wallace Beery, Eddie
Cantor

INDUSTRY & LABOR: Henry Ford, Samuel Gompers, Walter P. Chrysler,
John Wanamaker, S.S. Kresge, J.C. Penney, John Jacob Astor, John L.
Lewis

ADVENTURERS: Lewis & Clark, Charles A. Lindberg, Kit Carson, Roald
Amundsen, Adm. Richard Byrd, Commodore Robert Peary

PHILOSOPHERS: Johann Wolfgang von Goethe, Gotthold E. Lessing,
Voltaire (Francois Marie Arouet)

ATHLETES: Bob Feller, Tris Speaker, Ty Cobb, Paul "Dizzy" Trout,
Harry Carey, Dell Rice, Jimmy Fox, Joe Tinker (of "Tinker to Evers
to Chance"), Jack Dempsey, Arnold Palmer, Jack Arthur Johnson

ASTRONAUTS: Edwin E. "Buzz" Aldrin, Jr., Leroy Gordon Cooper, Donn
F. Eisele, Virgil I. Grissom, Edgar D. Mitchell, Walter M. Schirra,
Jr., Thomas P. Stafford, Paul J. Weitz, James B. Irwin, John Glenn.

WRITERS: Samuel Clemens (Mark Twain), Sir Walter Scott, Rudyard
Kipling, Robert Burns, Wassily I. Maikow, Heinrich Heine, Jean P.C.
de Florian, Leopoldo Lugoner, Antonio de Castro Alves, James
Boswell, Alexander Pushkin, Arthur Conan Doyle, Johnathon Swift,
Oscar Wilde, Friedrich Schiller.

LAW: John Marshall, Earl Warren, Thurgood Marshall

MEDICINE: Drs. Alexander Fleming, Jules Bordet, Antoine DePage,
Edward Jenner, Charles and William Mayo, Karl and William Menninger

SCIENCE: Hans C. Orsted, Jons Jakob Frk. von Berzelius, Alfred
Edmund Brehm, Luther Burbank, Johan Ernst Gunnerus, Albert Abraham
Michelson, Gaspard Monge, C.F.S. Hahnemann, Pedro N. Arata,
Alexandre Gustave Eiffel, Alexander Fleming

...as well as Harry Houdini, Norman Vincent Peale, David Sarnoff,
Thomas J. Watson, Giuseppe Garibaldi, Cecil J. Rhodes, Marvin
Zindler, Steve Wozniak (the inventor of the Apple II Computer) and
many, many more.

Subject: [5-5] What famous buildings in the US have been laid
Masonically?

The U. S. Capitol, The Smithsonian Institution, Jackson Hall, The
National Education Association Building, The Army War College
Building, House of Representatives Office Building, The Washington
Monument

The Washington Monument is in Alexandria, Virginia, and honors our
first President and Brother Mason, George Washington. (FMBITS.TXT)

Subject: [5-6] What's the difference between AF&AM and F&AM?

F&AM means "Free & Accepted Masons." AF&AM means "Ancient Free &
Accepted Masons". In practical terms, there is no difference, since
the jurisdictions that are termed "ancient" F&AM are no different
than those that are simply F&AM. The distinction is a historical
one, owing to differences in Grand Lodge names. For a good
treatment of this subject, have a look at
http://freemasonry.bc.ca/Writings/afandam.html (Who's computer is this?)

Subject: [5-7] Was Joseph Smith, founder of the Mormon Church, a Mason?

(This section provided by Brother Bob Dixon; the use of the first
person is his)

"Joseph Smith was a mason, as were the following four presidents of
the LDS church.

From about 1839 to about 1846 most of the members of the church
gathered to Nauvoo, Illinois, and there were at least four lodges in
operation there. Joseph Smith was a very flamboyant individual and
had a disagreement with the Grand Lodge of Illinois over the way the
Nauvoo lodges were operated. Accordingly, their charters were
revoked by the Grand Lodge.

He was murdered by a mob in 1844, and Brigham Young felt it was as a
result of a Masonic conspiracy. He prohibited Mormons from being
Masons, which remained in effect until the last ten years or so. The
ill feelings went both ways, as the Grand Lodge of Utah refused to
accept Mormons as members until about 1984.

There are no particular restrictions on Mormons being Masons. We
are continually counseled to put our families and Christ first,
which many interpret as counsel to avoid most activities outside
family and church. This is a personal choice, though, and not a
matter of strict doctrine.

We perform certain ordinances such as baptisms for the dead and
eternal marriages in our temples, and minor portions of those
ordinances bear very surface similarity to parts of the Masonic
degrees. The whole scope and character is much different, though.
Where (I feel, anyway) that the Masonic degree work revolves around
our place in God's kingdom here on the earth, our temple rituals
deal with creation and our place in the eternities."

(A minor historical note: Smith was made a Mason at Sight by the
Grand Master of Illinois)

Subject: [5-8] What is the oldest Lodge Room in the world? In the US?

"St. John's Chapel, Edinburgh, Scotland is said to be the oldest
Masonic Lodge Room (1736) in the world. The oldest known Lodge Room
in the U.S. is situated in Prentiss House, Marble head,
Massachusetts (1760).The oldest Masonic Lodge Building is the Lodge
Hall of Royal White Hart Lodge No. 2, Halltax, Northings, North
Carolina (1771)." (FMBITS.TXT)

Other information disagrees with this, stating that the oldest
American Lodge Room is "Masons Hall in Richmond, Virginia, the home
of Richmond Randolph Lodge No. 19 and Richmond Royal Arch Chapter
No. 3. The building owned by Royal White Hart Lodge wasn't built
until 1821. Masons Hall was built in 1785. It was originally the
home of Richmond Lodge No. 10, the first wholly new Lodge chartered
by the Grand Lodge of Virginia. It was also the first permanent home
of the Grand Lodge of Virginia." (from Northern Light)

Subject: [5-9] Is it true that all of George Washington's generals
during the Revolutionary War were Masons?

No. 33 of the generals serving under Washington were Masons. A
substantial number, but not "all".

Subject: [5-10] Is it true that all the signers of the Declaration of
Independence were Masons? The Articles of Confederation? The
Constitution?

No. Masons constituted ten of the signers of the Articles, nine
signers of the Declaration, and thirteen signers of the
Constitution.

Additionally, Edmund Randolph, Grand Master of Virginia, was an
active participant at the Constitutional Convention, though he
didn't sign the document. It should also be noted that four
Presidents of the Continental Congresses were Freemasons: Peyton
Randolph of Virginia, John Hancock of Massachusetts, Henry Laurens
of South Carolina, and Arthur St. Clair of Pennsylvania. (Northern
Light)

Subject: [5-11] George Washington turned down the title of "Grand
Master of the United States"-- true?

Yes, sort of. The American Union Lodge proposed that Washington
become "General Grand Master of the United States", a title to be
held in the "National Grand Lodge". However, there were many others
who also disagreed with the idea, so it was never a serious
proposal. Washington was Master of Alexandria Lodge No. 22 in
Virginia, whose Grand Master was then Edmund Randolph. Washington
was never Grand Master of Virginia (or any other jurisdiction).

Subject: [5-12] Why do some Lodges meet on a certain day of the week
"following the full moon"? Are Masons some kind of moon worshippers?

The reason is actually simple practicality. Masonic Lodges usually
meet at night, since their membership typically works during the day
(although there are a few 'daylight' lodges). Before street lights
were available in the 19th century, men walked to Lodge in the dark
of night and it was common to schedule Lodge meetings shortly after
a full moon to provide maximum illumination for Brothers' walk to
and from Lodge. Obviously, this is no longer an issue, though some
Lodges whose history stretches back into the 19th century or earlier
still schedule their meetings by the moon's period. These are
sometimes referred to as "moon Lodges".

Subject: [5-13] Did Masons suffer at the hands of the Nazis?

Yes. The exact numbers are unknown. Lt. Col. David Boyd wrote that
85,000 German Masons were killed by the Nazis, though other research
has found that this number may be off by as much as a third. This
figure does not include any of the nations the Nazis occupied.

Regardless of the actual number killed, it is clear that Hitler
viewed Masonry, which exalts truth, toleration, brotherly love, and
free thought, to be dangerous and a threat to his regime.
Ironically, in his last days in his bunker in Berlin, Hitler had a
painting of Frederick the Great in his chambers. Frederick the
Great was a Mason.

Subject: [5-14] Are Masons connected to Greek-letter fraternities?

**

Subject: [5-15] I want information on Masonic history. What books would
be good introductions?

Virtually anything by Allen Roberts.

Robinson, John J. A Pilgrim's Path and Born in Blood

Stevenson, David, PhD. The Origins of Freemasonry: Scotland's
Century 1590-1710 (Cambridge, New York: Cambridge University Press,
1988).

Coil's Masonic Encyclopedia is an excellent reference.

Subject: [5-16] My local Library doesn't have any books on Freemasonry,
where can I find them?

Many Lodges maintain their own libraries as do the Grand Lodges.
Some larger public Libraries also may have a better collection than
a smaller Library. Unfortunately, bookstores do not typically carry
a wide assortment of Masonic related books, however, there are
several sources to purchase books:

Macoy Publishing
(804) 262-6551
P.O. Box 9759
Richmond, VA 23228

Anchor Communications
(804) 737-4498
110 Quince Ave.
Drawer 70
Highland Springs, VA 23075

Subject: [5-17] What movies/books feature Masonry?

'The Man Who Would Be King' by Brother Rudyard Kipling. A good
story, later made into an excellent film, starring Michael Caine,
Sean Connery, and Christopher Plummer. Its portrayal of Masonic
history is quite fanciful, of course.

Murder by Decree. A Sherlock Holmes movie, concerning the Master
Sleuth's hunt for Jack the Ripper. It does not portray Masonry in
an honest, accurate, or favorable light. A good movie, but it is
important to remember that no Mason would ever knowingly commit a
crime for a Brother. Incidentally, Edward VII was actually a Mason.
(The story is not one of Brother Sir Arthur Conan Doyle's).

From Hell. A movie which makes yet another attempt to link Freemasonry
to the Jack the Ripper murders.

The Story line of the film
--------------------------
a) HRH Albert Victor, Duke of Clarence (grandson and heir apparent
to Queen Victoria) married a Roman Catholic shop girl and had a
daughter by her.
b) a group of Whitechapel prostitutes found out and were threatening
to 'go public.'
c) Queen Victoria, the Prime Minister (Marquess of Salisbury), the
Commissioner of the Metropolitan Police (Sir Charles Warren) and the
Queen's Physician (Sir William Gull) hatched a plot to murder the
prostitutes.
d) that the Duke of Clarence was a Freemason, as were the Prime
Minister, the Commissioner and Sir William Gull and that their
Masonic oath bound them to protect at all costs a fellow Freemason
and defend the monarchy
e) that Sir William. Gull was the Ripper and the mutilations to the
bodies of the murdered prostitutes were in accordance with the
physical penalties in the Masonic oaths.

The FACTS
---------
a) the Prime Minister and Sir William Gull were not Freemasons
b) the mutilations to the bodies bore no relation to the former
physical penalties

The origin of the story line
----------------------------
The film was based on an 'adult comic', also entitled 'From Hell',
which was based on the late Stephen Knight's 1975 book 'Jack the
Ripper - the Final Solution'.

Knight was 'sold' the story by one Joseph Sickert who claimed to be
the son of the artist Walter Sickert by the 'daughter' of the Duke
of Clarence and the shop girl. Within two month's of the publication
of Knight's book Joseph Sickert, in an interview in the Times, said
that the whole story was a figment of his imagination, that Knight
was the most 'gullible' reporter he had met and that he had had
great fun in 'gulling' him.

The production company which produced the film "From Hell"
approached the United Grand Lodge of England (UGLE) for assistance
in getting the 'Masonic bits' correct. When it was realized what
they were filming, it was pointed out to them by UGLE that the film
was based on lies. Their response was that it was too good a story
not to film it! UGLE refused to give any assistance to a project
that was perpetuating known lies and could damage the reputation of
Freemasonry.

As for whether Freemasons are bothered by this - the answer is yes
and no. Yes, in that a fictional film is yet again being portrayed
(to an extent at least) as "faction": i.e. a mix of fiction and fact,
but without any indication which parts are fictitious and which are
factual. Yes also, in that some people seem to believe the story
line, and apply the principles of it to Freemasonry in general
today. No, in that it's just another Hollywood film: a distortion
of reality into an adventure, which Hollywood has done before in
many other cases and will do many times again in the future. No
also, because in a few years time the novelty of the film will
have worn off, and hardly anybody will remember it.

(Thanks to Richard White for this information.)

For more Masonic movie information, please visit
http:freemasonry.bc.ca/fiction/cinema.html

The "Turmgesellschaft" in Goethe's "Wilhelm Meister" novels is
certainly of Masonic origin.

In Tolstoy's "War and Peace", the Masonic initiation ritual of the
character Pierre Besouchoff is described in great detail.

There is also a modest body of Masonic poetry: Kipling's "The
Palace" and "Mother Lodge," Burns's "Masonic Farewell," Goethe's
"Mason Lodge," Leigh Hunt's "Abou Ben Adhem," Carruth's "Each in His
Own Tongue," Burns's "On the Apron," Meredith's "Ebony Staff of
Solomon," Bowman's "Voice of America," Malloch's "Father's Lodge"
and Nesbit's "I Sat in Lodge with You." (Carl H. Claudy)

Trevor McKeown provided the following reading list:

The Freemason at Work by Harry Carr, revised by Frederick Smyth. Ian
Allan Lewis Masonic Ltd. Riverdene Business Park, Molesey Road,
Hersham Surrey KT12 4RG. ISBN: 0 85318 189 6 hc 404 pp.

Symbolism in Craft Freemasonry by Colin Dyer. Lewis Masonic, Ian Allen
Regalia Ltd., Terminal House Shepperton Surrey. ISBN: 0 85318 130 6
pb 1983 [0 85318 102 0 clothbound, 1991]. 184 pp.

Workman Unashamed, The Testimony of a Christian Freemason
Christopher Haffner. Lewis Masonic, Ian Allan Regalia Ltd, Terminal
House Shepperton Surrey. ISBN: 0 85318 167 5. hc. 271 pp.

Early Masonic Pamphlets Reprinted and edited by Douglas Knoop and
G.P. Jones and Douglas Hamer. Q.C. Correspondence Circle Ltd. 60
Great Queen Street, London WC2B 5BA: 1978. ISBN: 0 9502001 3 1. 338
pp. [tel: 0171-405 7340, fax: 0171-404 8131]

Fundamentalism & Freemasonry, The Southern Baptist Investigation of
the Fraternal Order Gary Leazer. M. Evans and Company, Inc. 216 East
49th Street, New York, New York 10017. ISBN: 0-87131-775-3 (cloth).
252 pp.

Freemasonry, A Journey through Ritual and Symbol W. Kirk MacNulty.
Thames and Hudson Inc., 500 Fifth Avenue, New York, New York 10110:
Reprinted 1999. ISBN: 0-500-81037-0. pb. 96 pp.

Freemasonry, The Study of a Phenomenon Alexander Piatigorsky. The
Harvill Press, 2 Aztec Row, Berners Road, London N1 0PW: 1997. ISBN:
1 89046 265 0. pb. 398 pp.

The Freemasons Jasper Ridley. Constable & Robinson Ltd, 3 The
Lanchesters, 162 Fulham Palace Road, London W6 9ER: 1999. ISBN:
1-84119-238-4. pb 340 pp.

Born in Blood, The Lost Secrets of Freemasonry John J. Robinson. M.
Evans and Company, Inc., New York, New York: 1989. ISBN:
0-87131-602-1

A Pilgrim's Path, Freemasonry and the religious right John J.
Robinson. M. Evans and Company, Inc., New York, New York: 1993.
ISBN: 0-87131-732-X

The Origins of Freemasonry : Scotland's Century, 1590-1710 David
Stevenson. Paperback, Cambridge University Press: 1990